the voluntary decision by an individual to grant or withhold permission for an action or procedure affecting them, based on a clear and complete understanding of all relevant information. This includes the purpose of the activity, potential benefits and risks, available alternatives, and the individual’s rights. In research involving human participants, informed consent means that participants agree freely to take part after receiving plain-language information that enables them to make an informed choice. Researchers have an ongoing ethical obligation to provide updates and ensure participants continue to understand what their participation involves.